Chapter 8 Social Movements

Features Of A Social Movement

Social movements are distinct from isolated protests; they involve sustained, organized collective action over time, often directed at the state to bring about or resist social and political change. Key features include shared objectives, ideologies, leadership, structure, and a collective identity.

Social movements can arise around public issues like rights to resources (forests, land) or social justice. They often face opposition from counter-movements defending the status quo, highlighting the resistance to change ingrained in entrenched interests and values.

The most visible form of action is protest, but movements also engage in mobilization through meetings, charting campaigns (lobbying, media engagement), and developing distinct modes of protest (processions, street theater, songs, Gandhian satyagraha).

Activity 8.1 asks for comparison of life with grandparents to understand social change and rights. Activity 8.2 explores how social movements change society and inspire others. Activity 8.3 suggests listing various social movements and their goals. Activity 8.4 probes the role of rational calculation versus other motivations in joining movements.

Sociology And Social Movements

Why The Study Of Social Movements Is Important For Sociology

Sociology has long been interested in social movements, viewing them as significant forces of social change. Early sociologists like Durkheim were concerned with social order amidst movements perceived as threats. Marxist scholars, however, highlighted the "moral economy" and legitimate grievances driving collective action by the exploited.

Theories Of Social Movements

Several theories explain social movements:

• Relative Deprivation Theory: Argues that social conflict arises when groups perceive themselves as worse off than others, leading to protest. However, perceived deprivation alone doesn't guarantee movements; organization, leadership, and shared ideology are also crucial.
• Resource Mobilization Theory (McCarthy & Zald): Emphasizes a movement's success based on its ability to mobilize resources (leadership, organization, communication) within a favorable political opportunity structure. Critics argue movements can also create resources like new identities.
• Everyday Acts of Resistance (James Scott): Highlights subtle, non-overt forms of resistance by the subordinate (e.g., feigning slowness, hiding resources) when overt political action is too risky.

Box 8.4 discusses the survival strategies of poor women, like hiding savings, as acts of resistance or coping.

Types Of Social Movements

One Way Of Classifying: Reformist, Redemptive, Revolutionary

Social movements can be classified based on their aims:

• Redemptive/Transformatory Movements: Aim for fundamental personal change (e.g., spiritual movements, Ezhava community reforms under Narayana Guru).
• Reformist Movements: Seek gradual changes within existing social and political structures (e.g., linguistic states reorganization, Right to Information campaign).
• Revolutionary Movements: Attempt radical transformation, often seeking state power (e.g., Naxalite movement).

Most movements exhibit a mix of these elements or shift their orientation over time.

Another Way Of Classifying: Old And New

'Old' social movements (20th century) were often class-based (workers', peasants') or focused on national liberation, typically operating through political parties. They aimed at reorganizing power structures.

'New' social movements (post-1960s/70s) often focus on quality-of-life issues (environment, gender, identity politics), uniting participants across class lines and sometimes operating outside traditional party structures. They can create new symbols and identities. In India, movements like peasant, Dalit, women's, and tribal movements blend concerns about economic inequality with identity, culture, and political assertion.

Activity 8.5 suggests classifying various historical and contemporary social movements based on these typologies.

Ecological Movements

Ecological movements arise from concerns about unchecked resource use and unsustainable development models. They highlight the interlinkages between economic interests, social inequality, and environmental protection.

The Chipko movement in the Himalayan foothills exemplifies this, where villagers, particularly women, hugged trees to prevent felling by government contractors. This movement addressed villagers' subsistence needs (firewood, fodder), countered commercial interests exploiting forests, highlighted social inequality between villagers and the state/contractors, raised issues of ecological sustainability (deforestation causing floods), and expressed resentment against distant, indifferent governments.

Box 8.5: Chipko Movement details the movement's origins and actions. Exercise for Box 8.5 prompts discussion on whether it addresses 'old' class issues or 'new' ecological and identity concerns. Activity 8.6 suggests researching local environmental issues.

Class Based Movements

Peasant Movements

Peasant movements in India have a long history, often addressing grievances related to land, economic exploitation, and the actions of landlords, moneylenders, and the state. Early movements (post-1858) were often localized. Later, under nationalist leadership (e.g., Bardoli Satyagraha, Champaran), they became linked to the independence struggle. Peasant organizations like the Kisan Sabhas emerged in the 1920s-30s.

Post-independence, significant movements include the Naxalite movement (starting 1967 in Bengal, aiming for radical land redistribution and challenging feudal structures) and the 'New Farmers' Movements' (emerging in the 1970s in Punjab and Tamil Nadu). These new movements are often regionally organized, non-party based, market-oriented, and focus on issues like prices, subsidies, and anti-state sentiments, using novel protest methods.

Box 8.7 & 8.8 describe the Naxalite movement's origins and actions. Activity 8.7 suggests researching the Naxal movement and its historical context.

Workers’ Movements

Factory production in India began in the 1860s, initially with exploitative labor conditions under colonial rule. Workers protested spontaneously and later formed trade unions. The first union was established in Madras in 1918, followed by the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) in 1920, encompassing diverse ideologies. Government interventions, like the Factories Act (1922), offered some concessions. Splits within the labor movement, often along political lines (e.g., AITUC vs. INTUC), and economic recessions have impacted their strength. Workers' movements were also intertwined with broader struggles for civil liberties, especially during the Emergency.

Contemporary challenges for unions include globalization, contract labor, and the decline of the organized sector.

Activity 8.8 suggests following news related to trade union activities and discussing their relevance in the context of globalization.

Class Based Movements

Peasant Movements

Peasant movements in India have a long history, evolving from localized protests against specific grievances in the colonial era to broader mobilization under nationalist leadership. Post-independence, movements like the Naxalite struggle focused on radical land reform, while 'new farmers' movements' emerged in the 1970s, often regionally organized, market-oriented, and using novel protest methods to address issues of price, subsidies, and state policies.

Workers’ Movements

The origins of workers' movements in India trace back to the early days of factory production under colonial rule, marked by exploitation and poor working conditions. Spontaneous protests grew into organized trade unions, with the formation of the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) in 1920 being a significant milestone. These movements often allied with nationalist and socialist ideologies, advocating for better wages, working conditions, and political rights. Post-independence, the labor movement has faced challenges like political fragmentation, economic downturns, and the rise of the informal sector under globalization.

Caste Based Movements

The Dalit Movement

Dalit movements represent a struggle for recognition as equals, self-dignity, and the eradication of untouchability and caste-based discrimination. The term 'Dalit' signifies oppression and resistance. These movements are not monolithic but encompass diverse ideologies and focus on issues ranging from cultural autonomy and identity assertion to challenging structural economic exploitation.

Dalit literature, a significant expression of these movements, uses its own imageries and language to critique the caste system and advocate for social and cultural revolt. While some movements focus on positional changes within the system, others aim for radical societal transformation.

Box 8.9: An unknown poet's poem offers a glimpse into the harsh realities faced by Dalit communities. Exercise for Box 8.10 prompts discussion on classifying Dalit movements and their impact.

Backward Class Castes Movements

Movements based on backward caste identities gained political prominence, particularly from the late 19th century onwards and significantly in the post-independence era. These movements often arose from the secularization of caste identities, where caste became a basis for political mobilization and demanding state patronage and representation. The formation of organizations like the Backward Classes Leagues and the Mandal Commission's recommendations highlight the political assertion of OBCs, leveraging their numbers for influence, though internal disparities within the OBC category present further complexities.

The Tribal Movements

Tribal movements, often located in geographically concentrated areas, are driven by issues of land alienation, forest rights, exploitation by non-tribals ('dikus'), cultural identity preservation, and demands for political autonomy. Colonial policies significantly impacted tribal life by restricting access to forests and resources.

Jharkhand

The Jharkhand movement, with a history spanning over a century, was inspired by leaders like Birsa Munda. It aimed for a separate state based on tribal identity, language, regional deprivation, and ecological concerns. The movement mobilized against land alienation, forest exploitation, and the discriminatory practices of non-tribal settlers and the state.

The North East

Tribal communities in the North-East responded to the post-independence administrative integration within India by asserting their distinct identities and demanding autonomy within the Indian Constitution, moving away from earlier secessionist tendencies. However, many areas remain under special laws limiting civil liberties due to perceived "disturbed" conditions, perpetuating a cycle of rebellion and repression.

Box 8.13 discusses the ongoing struggles of tribal communities, particularly concerning land rights and exploitation in the context of development projects.

The Women’s Movement

The women's movement in India has evolved through distinct phases, from 19th-century social reforms addressing issues like Sati and child marriage, to early 20th-century women's organizations advocating for broader rights, and a significant renewal in the mid-1970s with the rise of autonomous women's movements independent of political parties.

The second phase focused on contemporary issues like violence against women (custodial rape, dowry deaths), media representation, and the gendered consequences of development. Legal reforms have been a key focus, addressing outdated laws. Contemporary challenges include addressing gender bias reflected in the declining child sex ratio and ensuring gender justice across different social strata (urban middle-class, rural, Dalit, upper caste women having distinct concerns).

Box 8.14: Violence against women by caste highlights how the forms of violence and control differ based on caste. Activity 5.5 (renumbered to 8.7 here) suggests exploring women's organizations and historical figures.

The 19th Century Social Reform Movements And Early Women’s Organisations

Early reform movements, led by figures like Raja Rammohun Roy, Ranade, and Jotiba Phule, addressed issues like Sati, widow remarriage, and education for women, often drawing on both Western liberal ideas and Indian traditions.

Agrarian Struggles And Revolts

Women have historically participated alongside men in tribal and rural struggles, such as the Tebhaga, Telangana, and Warli movements, challenging exploitation and demanding rights.

Post–1947

Following independence, women activists engaged in nation-building. A second phase of the women's movement emerged in the mid-1970s, focusing on issues like violence against women and advocating for legal reforms. Autonomous women's groups gained prominence, prioritizing women's issues distinct from political party agendas. There's also a growing recognition of how caste, class, and gender intersect to shape women's experiences.